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Block (programming)

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Block_programming" title="Block programming">Block programming</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Code block" redirects here. For the IDE, see <a href="Code%3A%3ABlocks" title="Code::Blocks">Code::Blocks</a>. For block-based programming, see <a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual programming language</a>.</div>

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In <a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a>, a block or code block or block of code is a lexical structure of <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> which is grouped together. Blocks consist of one or more <a href="Declaration_(computer_programming)" title="Declaration (computer programming)">declarations</a> and <a href="Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">statements</a>. A <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> that permits the creation of blocks, including blocks <a href="Nesting_(computing)" title="Nesting (computing)">nested</a> within other blocks, is called a block-structured programming language. Blocks are fundamental to <a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a>, where <a href="Control_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Control structure">control structures</a> are formed from blocks.

Blocks have two functions: to group statements so that they can be treated as one statement, and to define <a href="Scope_(computer_science)" title="Scope (computer science)">scopes</a> for <a href="Name_binding" title="Name binding">names</a> to distinguish them from the same name used elsewhere. In a block-structured programming language, the objects named in outer blocks are visible inside inner blocks, unless they are <a href="Name_masking" class="mw-redirect" title="Name masking">masked</a> by an <a href="Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer science)">object</a> declared with the same name.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

Ideas of block structure were developed in the 1950s during the development of the first <a href="Autocode" title="Autocode">autocodes</a>, and were formalized in the <a href="Algol_58" class="mw-redirect" title="Algol 58">Algol 58</a> and <a href="Algol_60" class="mw-redirect" title="Algol 60">Algol 60</a> reports. Algol 58 introduced the notion of the "compound statement", which was related solely to <a href="Control_flow" title="Control flow">control flow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-algol58_report-1">[1]</a> The subsequent Revised Report which described the syntax and semantics of Algol 60 introduced the notion of a block and <a href="Block_scope" class="mw-redirect" title="Block scope">block scope</a>, with a block consisting of " A sequence of declarations followed by a sequence of statements and enclosed between begin and end..." in which "[e]very declaration appears in a block in this way and is valid only for that block."<a href="#cite_note-algol60_report-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2></div>

Blocks use different syntax in different languages. Several broad families are:

<ul><li>the <a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a> family in which blocks are delimited by the keywords "<code>begin</code>" and "<code>end</code>" or equivalent. In <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, blocks are delimited by curly braces - "<code>{</code>" and "<code>}</code>". <a href="ALGOL_68" title="ALGOL 68">ALGOL 68</a> uses parentheses.</li>

<li>Parentheses - "<code>(</code>" and "<code>)</code>", are used in the MS-DOS <a href="Batch_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Batch language">batch language</a></li>

<li><a href="Off-side_rule" title="Off-side rule">indentation</a>, as in <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> and <a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="S-expression" title="S-expression">s-expressions</a> with a syntactic keyword such as <code>prog</code> or <code>let</code> (as in the <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> family)</li>

<li>In 1968 (with <a href="ALGOL_68" title="ALGOL 68">ALGOL 68</a>), then in <a href="Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a>'s 1974 <a href="Guarded_Command_Language#Selection:_if" title="Guarded Command Language">Guarded Command Language</a> the conditional and iterative code block are alternatively terminated with the block reserved word reversed: e.g. <code>if ~ then ~ elif ~ else ~ fi</code>, <code>case ~ in ~ out ~ esac</code> and <code>for ~ while ~ do ~ od</code></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2></div>

Some languages which support blocks with declarations do not fully support all declarations; for instance many C-derived languages do not permit a function definition within a block (<a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">nested functions</a>). And unlike its ancestor Algol, Pascal does not support the use of blocks with their own declarations inside the begin and end of an existing block, only compound statements enabling sequences of statements to be grouped together in if, while, repeat and other control statements.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_semantics">Basic semantics</h2></div>

The semantic meaning of a block is twofold. Firstly, it provides the programmer with a way for creating arbitrarily large and complex structures that can be treated as units. Secondly, it enables the programmer to limit the scope of variables and sometimes other objects that have been declared.

In early languages such as <a href="Fortran_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortran IV">Fortran IV</a> and <a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>, there were no statement blocks or control structures other than simple forms of loops. Conditionals were implemented using conditional <a href="Goto" title="Goto">goto</a> statements:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-fortranfixed mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>C LANGUAGE: ANSI STANDARD FORTRAN 66

C INITIALIZE VALUES TO BE CALCULATED

PAYSTX = .FALSE.

PAYSST = .FALSE.

TAX = 0.0

SUPTAX = 0.0

C SKIP TAX DEDUCTION IF EMPLOYEE EARNS LESS THAN TAX THRESHOLD

IF (WAGES .LE. TAXTHR) GOTO 100

TAX = (WAGES - TAXTHR) * BASCRT

C SKIP SUPERTAX DEDUCTION IF EMPLOYEE EARNS LESS THAN SUPERTAX THRESHOLD

IF (WAGES .LE. SUPTHR) GOTO 100

SUPTAX = (WAGES - SUPTHR) * SUPRAT

100 TAXED = WAGES - TAX - SUPTAX

</pre></div>

The logical structure of the program is not reflected in the language, and analyzing when a given statement is executed can be difficult.

Blocks allow the programmer to treat a group of statements as a unit, and the default values which had to appear in initialization in this style of programming can, with a block structure, be placed closer to the decision:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-pascal mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre> { Language: Jensen and Wirth Pascal }

if wages > tax_threshold then

begin

paystax := true;

tax := (wages - tax_threshold) * tax_rate

{ The block structure makes it easier to see how the code could

be refactored for clarity, and also makes it easier to do,

because the structure of the inner conditional can easily be moved

out of the outer conditional altogether and the effects of doing

so are easily predicted. }

if wages > supertax_threshold then begin

pays_supertax := true;

supertax := (wages - supertax_threshold) * supertax_rate

end

else begin

pays_supertax := false;

supertax := 0

end

else begin

paystax := false; pays_supertax := false;

tax := 0; supertax := 0

end;

taxed := wages - tax - supertax;

</pre></div>

Use of blocks in the above fragment of <a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a> clarifies the programmer's intent, and enables combining the resulting blocks into a nested hierarchy of <a href="Conditional_(computer_programming)" title="Conditional (computer programming)">conditional</a> statements. The structure of the code reflects the programmer's thinking more closely, making it easier to understand and modify.

The above source code can be made even clearer by taking the inner if statement out of the outer one altogether, placing the two blocks one after the other to be executed consecutively. Semantically there is little difference in this case, and the use of block structure, supported by indenting for readability, makes it easy for the programmer to refactor the code.

In primitive languages, variables had broad scope. For instance, an integer variable called IEMPNO might be used in one part of a Fortran subroutine to denote an employee social security number (ssn), but during maintenance work on the same subroutine, a programmer might accidentally use the same variable, IEMPNO, for a different purpose, and this could result in a bug that was difficult to trace. Block structure makes it easier for programmers to control scope to a minute level.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-scheme mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>;; Language: R5RS Standard Scheme

(let ((empno (ssn-of employee-name)))

(while (is-manager empno)

(let ((employees (length (underlings-of empno))))

(printf "~a has ~a employees working under him:~%" employee-name employees)

(for-each

(lambda (empno)

;; Within this lambda expression the variable empno refers to the ssn

;; of an underling. The variable empno in the outer expression,

;; referring to the manager's ssn, is shadowed.

(printf "Name: ~a, role: ~a~%"

(name-of empno)

(role-of empno)))

(underlings-of empno)))))

</pre></div>

In the above <a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a> fragment, empno is used to identify both the manager and their underlings each by their respective ssn, but because the underling ssn is declared within an inner block it does not interact with the variable of the same name that contains the manager's ssn. In practice, considerations of clarity would probably lead the programmer to choose distinct variable names, but they have the choice and it is more difficult to introduce a bug inadvertently.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hoisting">Hoisting</h2></div>

In some languages, a variable can be declared at function scope even within enclosed blocks. For example, in JavaScript, variables declared with <code>var</code> have function scope.

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<ul><li><a href="Basic_block" title="Basic block">Basic block</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_scope" class="mw-redirect" title="Block scope">Block scope</a></li>

<li><a href="Closure_(computer_programming)" title="Closure (computer programming)">Closure (computer programming)</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_flow" title="Control flow">Control flow</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFPerlisSamelson1958" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Alan_Perlis" title="Alan Perlis">Perlis, A. J.</a>; Samelson, K. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F377924.594925">"Preliminary report: international algebraic language"</a>. Communications of the ACM. 1 (12). New York, NY, USA: ACM: 8–22. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F377924.594925">10.1145/377924.594925</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28755282">28755282</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-algol60_report-2"><a href="#cite_ref-algol60_report_2-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBackusBauerGreenKatz1960" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="John_Backus" title="John Backus">Backus, J. W.</a>; <a href="Friedrich_L._Bauer" title="Friedrich L. Bauer">Bauer, F. L.</a>; Green, J.; Katz, C.; McCarthy, J.; Perlis, A. J.; <a href="Heinz_Rutishauser" title="Heinz Rutishauser">Rutishauser, H.</a>; Samelson, K.; <a href="Bernard_Vauquois" title="Bernard Vauquois">Vauquois, B.</a>; Wegstein, J. H.; van Wijngaarden, A.; Woodger, M. (May 1960). <a href="Peter_Naur" title="Peter Naur">Naur, Peter</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm">"Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60"</a>. Communications of the ACM. 3 (5). New York, NY, USA: ACM: 299–314. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F367236.367262">10.1145/367236.367262</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782">0001-0782</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:278290">278290</a>. Retrieved 2009-10-27.</cite>

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</style><div id="Programming_paradigms_(Comparison_by_language)368" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigms</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages" title="Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages">Comparison by language</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jackson_structured_programming" title="Jackson structured programming">Jackson structures</a></li>

<li><a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-structured_programming" title="Non-structured programming">Non-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small" title="Programming in the large and programming in the small">Programming in the large and in the small</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">Design by contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">Nested function</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)">comparison</a>, <a href="List_of_object-oriented_programming_languages" title="List of object-oriented programming languages">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">Class-based</a>, <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based</a>, <a href="Object-based_language" title="Object-based language">Object-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Agent-oriented_programming" title="Agent-oriented programming">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">Immutable object</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_programming_language" title="Persistent programming language">Persistent</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_function_call_syntax" title="Uniform function call syntax">Uniform function call syntax</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages" title="Comparison of functional programming languages">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">Recursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a> (<a href="Partial_application" title="Partial application">Partial application</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Higher-order_programming" title="Higher-order programming">Higher-order</a></li>

<li><a href="Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">Purely functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Total_functional_programming" title="Total functional programming">Total</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_programming_language" title="Strict programming language">Strict</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_algebraic_data_type" title="Generalized algebraic data type">GADTs</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_type" title="Dependent type">Dependent types</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_logic_programming" title="Functional logic programming">Functional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_programming" title="Tacit programming">Point-free style</a></li>

<li><a href="Expression-oriented_programming_language" title="Expression-oriented programming language">Expression-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Applicative_programming_language" title="Applicative programming language">Applicative</a>, <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative</a></li>

<li><a href="Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level</a>, <a href="Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">Value-level</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flow-based_programming" title="Flow-based programming">Flow-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactive_programming" title="Reactive programming">Reactive</a> (<a href="Functional_reactive_programming" title="Functional reactive programming">Functional reactive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Signal_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal programming">Signals</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Streams</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_logic_programming" title="Abductive logic programming">Abductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Answer_set_programming" title="Answer set programming">Answer set</a></li>

<li><a href="Constraint_programming" title="Constraint programming">Constraint</a> (<a href="Constraint_logic_programming" title="Constraint logic programming">Constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondeterministic_programming" title="Nondeterministic programming">Nondeterministic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_logic_programming" title="Probabilistic logic programming">Probabilistic logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">DSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algebraic_modeling_language" title="Algebraic modeling language">Algebraic modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata-based_programming" title="Automata-based programming">Automata-based</a> (<a href="Action_language" title="Action language">Action</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Command_language" title="Command language">Command</a> (<a href="Spacecraft_command_language" title="Spacecraft command language">Spacecraft</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Differentiable_programming" title="Differentiable programming">Differentiable</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_description_language" title="Interface description language">Interface description</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">List comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-language_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language programming">Natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Page_description_language" title="Page description language">Page description</a></li>

<li><a href="Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">Pipes</a> and <a href="Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filters</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_programming" title="Probabilistic programming">Probabilistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_theoretic_programming" title="Set theoretic programming">Set-theoretic</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulation_language" title="Simulation language">Simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Stack-oriented_programming" title="Stack-oriented programming">Stack-based</a></li>

<li><a href="System_programming_language" title="System programming language">System</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_programming_language" title="Tactile programming language">Tactile</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_processor" title="Template processor">Templating</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a> (<a href="Graph_rewriting" title="Graph rewriting">Graph rewriting</a>, <a href="Production_system_(computer_science)" title="Production system (computer science)">Production</a>, <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">Pattern</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a>, <a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a>, <a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">Actor-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_mutual_exclusion" title="Automatic mutual exclusion">Automatic mutual exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Choreographic_programming" title="Choreographic programming">Choreographic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_logic_programming" title="Concurrent logic programming">Concurrent logic</a> (<a href="Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming" title="Concurrent constraint logic programming">Concurrent constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_object-oriented_programming" title="Concurrent object-oriented programming">Concurrent OO</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroprogramming" title="Macroprogramming">Macroprogramming</a></li>

<li><a href="Multitier_programming" title="Multitier programming">Multitier programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_computing" title="Organic computing">Organic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_programming_model" title="Parallel programming model">Parallel programming models</a></li>

<li><a href="Partitioned_global_address_space" title="Partitioned global address space">Partitioned global address space</a></li>

<li><a href="Process-oriented_programming" title="Process-oriented programming">Process-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativistic_programming" title="Relativistic programming">Relativistic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_concurrency" title="Structured concurrency">Structured concurrency</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attribute-oriented_programming" title="Attribute-oriented programming">Attribute-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_programming" title="Automatic programming">Automatic</a> (<a href="Inductive_programming" title="Inductive programming">Inductive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">Generic</a></li>

<li><a href="Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_programming" title="Interactive programming">Interactive</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a> (<a href="Hygienic_macro" title="Hygienic macro">Hygienic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Metalinguistic_abstraction" title="Metalinguistic abstraction">Metalinguistic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-stage_programming" title="Multi-stage programming">Multi-stage</a></li>

<li><a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> (<a href="Bayesian_program_synthesis" title="Bayesian program synthesis">Bayesian</a>, <a href="Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential</a>, <a href="Programming_by_demonstration" title="Programming by demonstration">by demonstration</a>, <a href="Programming_by_example" title="Programming by example">by example</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">Self-modifying code</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_programming" title="Symbolic programming">Symbolic</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_metaprogramming" title="Template metaprogramming">Template</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation of concerns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspects</a></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Components</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-driven_programming" title="Data-driven programming">Data-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-oriented_design" title="Data-oriented design">Data-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">Event-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Feature-oriented_programming" title="Feature-oriented programming">Features</a></li>

<li><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate</a></li>

<li><a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject-oriented_programming" title="Subject-oriented programming">Subjects</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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